Gramsci, Lukács, and Early Influences of fhe Frankfurt School

The Search for a New Marxism After the Catastrophe

In the wake of the First World War, European Marxists faced an uncomfortable reality: the long-predicted revolution had failed to erupt across the industrialized world. While the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia, the working classes of Western Europe did not overthrow their ruling classes. The very societies that had seemed on the brink of collapse instead reconstructed themselves, often through reactionary or authoritarian means.

In this climate of disillusionment, certain Marxist thinkers began to rethink the foundations of revolutionary theory. Among them, Antonio Gramsci and Georg Lukács stand out as early figures who recognized that a new form of critical theory was needed—one that took seriously the power of culture, consciousness, and ideology in sustaining social order.

Their work planted seeds that would profoundly shape the Frankfurt School’s project and the wider tradition of Western Marxism.

Georg Lukács: Reification and the Awakening of Consciousness

In 1923, Georg Lukács published History and Class Consciousness, a book that would become one of the cornerstones of Western Marxism. Lukács diagnosed a profound condition he called "reification" (Verdinglichung): under capitalism, social relations become thing-like, appearing natural, inevitable, and outside human control. People experience themselves and others not as dynamic agents, but as fixed objects within an alien system.

For Lukács, this reified consciousness was the true obstacle to revolution. Exploitation alone was not enough to provoke resistance; the structures of everyday experience masked the possibility of change. Revolutionary action would require an act of consciousness: the proletariat needed to recognize its own historical situation as constructed, contingent, and therefore transformable.

This emphasis on subjective awakening, on the necessity of developing a critical historical consciousness, deeply influenced the Frankfurt School’s later work—especially its focus on ideology, culture, and the subtle mechanisms by which domination sustains itself.

Antonio Gramsci: Hegemony and the Cultural Struggle

Around the same time, in the prisons of Mussolini's Italy, Antonio Gramsci was developing a parallel and equally radical rethinking of Marxist theory. In his Prison Notebooks, Gramsci introduced the concept of "hegemony"—a way of understanding how ruling classes maintain power not just through coercion, but through the consent of the dominated.

Hegemony, for Gramsci, was built through institutions like schools, churches, newspapers, and popular culture, which gradually shape common sense and social norms. In modern societies, control is exercised not merely at the point of a gun but in the minds and habits of everyday life.

Gramsci’s insight redefined the battlefield of politics. Winning power required not only seizing the state but transforming the cultural terrain itself. Revolution became a long, patient struggle for intellectual and moral leadership—a "war of position" rather than a "war of maneuver."

The Frankfurt School, with its intense interest in media, mass culture, and education, would absorb and elaborate Gramsci’s vision, even when their paths diverged in other respects.

Early Intellectual Influences: Marx, Weber, Freud

Gramsci and Lukács did not emerge from a vacuum. They were heirs to a complex intellectual legacy that deeply shaped early Critical Theory.

Karl Marx, of course, remained the foundational figure. His analysis of capitalism as a system driven by internal contradictions, his theory of alienation, and his vision of human emancipation remained essential. But Marx’s emphasis on material conditions was now read alongside newer understandings of culture and subjectivity.

Max Weber’s work also exerted a strong influence, particularly his analysis of rationalization and bureaucracy. Weber’s vision of a "disenchanted" modern world—where instrumental rationality dominates and values are eroded—resonated deeply with thinkers seeking to understand why freedom did not automatically emerge from economic development.

Finally, Sigmund Freud opened a new dimension: the unconscious. Freud’s insights into repression, desire, and the irrational forces shaping behavior suggested that ideology was not merely a matter of false ideas but involved deep psychic investments. Critical Theory would come to integrate these psychological dimensions into its understanding of domination.

Toward a New Critical Tradition

The early work of Gramsci and Lukács, along with these broader intellectual influences, marked a decisive break from the economic reductionism that had characterized much of nineteenth-century Marxism. They showed that modern domination was cultural, psychological, and subjective as much as it was economic—and that revolutionary change would require a revolution in thought, imagination, and everyday life.

The Frankfurt School would inherit these challenges, deepening them into a vast, interdisciplinary project of critique. But it was Gramsci and Lukács who first pointed the way: toward a Marxism that could reckon with failure, complexity, and the stubborn resilience of the status quo.

Their work remains a call not just to change the world, but to understand why it resists change—and how, even so, emancipatory possibilities might still be grasped.

Next article: Horkheimer's Shift from Traditional to Critical Theory

Back to: The Complete Introduction to the Frankfurt School

Revolutionary Praxis: Marx From Theory to Action

Karl Marx was not just a philosopher who theorized about the world; he was a revolutionary who believed that understanding the world was only the first step—changing it was the ultimate goal. For Marx, the purpose of philosophy was not merely to interpret reality but to transform it. This conviction is encapsulated in his concept of praxis, the idea that theory must be realized through action.

Marx’s call for revolutionary praxis stems from his critique of previous philosophers, whom he accused of merely interpreting the world without aiming to change it. His famous statement, “The philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point, however, is to change it,” reflects his belief that intellectual work must be directly linked to practical efforts to reshape society. This intertwining of theory and action is what distinguishes Marx’s approach from that of his predecessors.

At the heart of Marx’s revolutionary praxis is the idea that true understanding of the world emerges only through the struggle to change it. For Marx, theory is not an abstract exercise; it is a guide to action. This is evident in his analysis of capitalism, where his critique of the system is always accompanied by a call for its overthrow. Marx saw the working class as the key agent of this change, the class whose historical role is to bring about the transition from capitalism to communism.

Marx’s focus on praxis was rooted in his belief that capitalism’s contradictions would inevitably lead to its downfall. However, he did not see this process as automatic. The transition to a new society required conscious and organized action by the working class. This is where revolutionary praxis comes into play—Marx argued that workers must be aware of their historical role and actively work to achieve it. In this sense, praxis is both a product of and a response to the material conditions created by capitalism.

Marx’s commitment to praxis also meant that he rejected purely theoretical or utopian visions of socialism. He was critical of those who believed that socialism could be achieved through moral persuasion or isolated experiments. For Marx, the revolution had to be grounded in the real conditions of society, and it had to involve the mass mobilization of the working class. This is why Marx devoted so much of his life to organizing and participating in revolutionary movements, such as the Communist League and the First International.

One of the most significant aspects of Marx’s revolutionary praxis is his emphasis on the unity of theory and practice. He argued that theory without action is meaningless, just as action without theory is blind. This unity is what gives revolutionary movements their direction and purpose. Marx believed that only through this dialectical relationship between theory and practice could a genuine revolutionary movement succeed.

Moreover, Marx’s concept of praxis extends beyond just the act of revolution; it encompasses the entire process of building a new society. After the overthrow of capitalism, the working class must continue to apply praxis in constructing a socialist society. This involves not only the creation of new economic and political structures but also the transformation of social relations and human consciousness. For Marx, the revolution is not a one-time event but an ongoing process of human emancipation.

Alienation and Labor: The Human Cost of Capitalism

Karl Marx’s critique of capitalism is most famously associated with his theory of alienation—a concept that digs deep into the human cost of a system driven by profit rather than people. For Marx, alienation wasn’t just a philosophical idea; it was a lived reality for the working class, one that stripped labor of its dignity and humanity.

At the heart of Marx’s theory is the notion that in a capitalist society, labor becomes a commodity, something bought and sold on the market like any other product. This commodification of labor has profound implications. Workers, in producing goods, no longer see the fruits of their labor as an extension of themselves. Instead, the products they create are owned by someone else—the capitalist. This separation of the worker from the product of their labor is what Marx called alienation.

But the alienation doesn’t stop there. Marx identified four dimensions of alienation in a capitalist system:

1. Alienation from the Product: Workers are alienated from the goods they produce. These products, which should reflect the workers’ creativity and effort, become foreign objects that are owned and controlled by the capitalists. The worker’s labor, rather than being an act of self-expression, becomes a means to an end—a way to earn wages to survive.

2. Alienation from the Process of Labor: In a capitalist system, the act of working itself becomes alienating. Workers don’t have control over how they work or what they produce; they follow orders, often performing repetitive, monotonous tasks. The labor process, rather than being a fulfilling activity, becomes a source of frustration and dissatisfaction.

3. Alienation from the Worker’s Own Humanity: Marx believed that what makes us truly human is our ability to work creatively and collaboratively. Under capitalism, this ability is stifled. Workers are treated as mere instruments in the production process, valued only for their labor power, not for their human potential. This reduction of human beings to mere cogs in the machine dehumanizes them, leading to a profound sense of alienation from their own essence.

4. Alienation from Fellow Workers: Capitalism fosters competition rather than cooperation among workers. In the struggle to survive and advance in a capitalist society, workers often see each other as rivals rather than comrades. This alienates them from the sense of community and solidarity that could arise from shared labor.

For Marx, the alienation experienced by workers was not just a personal tragedy but a social one. It was a reflection of a system that valued profit over people, efficiency over humanity. Alienation, in this sense, is not just a consequence of capitalism; it’s a symptom of its deeper flaws.

The impact of alienation extends beyond the workplace. It shapes the way people relate to themselves, to each other, and to the world around them. In a society where work is alienating, life itself becomes fragmented, disconnected from the fulfillment that meaningful labor should bring. The alienated worker, according to Marx, is a symbol of a society out of balance, where human needs are subordinated to the demands of capital.

See also:

Marx on Human Nature, Alienation and The Structures of Capitalist Society

Marx's The German Ideology: Alienation and Ideology

Marx on alienation and freedom

Capitalism's Inherent Contradictions: Why Marx Believed It Would Collapse

Karl Marx held a deep conviction that capitalism, despite its appearance of invincibility, was inherently destined to collapse. This belief was not a mere wish but stemmed from his detailed analysis of economic crises, rooted in the concept of contradiction within the capitalist system.

At the core of Marx's theory is the idea that capitalism is driven by the relentless pursuit of profit. Capitalists, in their quest to maximize returns, often increase productivity by investing in new technologies and cutting labor costs. While these strategies may boost profits temporarily, they also create a paradox: as fewer workers are needed to produce goods, the purchasing power of the masses—the very consumers of those goods—diminishes. This leads to what Marx termed overproduction: a scenario where more goods are produced than can be profitably sold.

Overproduction is not just a rare mishap; it is a fundamental flaw of the capitalist system. It’s what you might call a “feature, not a bug.” Marx argued that capitalist economies are inherently prone to cycles of boom and bust. Periods of rapid growth inevitably lead to severe recessions. During these downturns, unsold goods accumulate, businesses fail, and workers are laid off, deepening the crisis that caused the downturn in the first place. In its relentless pursuit of profit, the capitalist system sows the seeds of its own destruction.

But Marx's theory extends beyond mere economics. He believed that these cyclical crises revealed deeper social contradictions. As wealth becomes increasingly concentrated in the hands of a few, while the working class grows poorer, the gap between classes widens. This, Marx argued, would eventually reach a tipping point—a revolutionary crisis where the working class would rise up, overthrow the capitalist system, and establish a classless society.

Marx’s prediction of capitalism’s eventual collapse has been a subject of intense debate and criticism over the years. Some argue that capitalism’s adaptability—through innovations, government interventions, and the development of welfare states—has prevented the kind of systemic collapse Marx foresaw. Others see the recurring financial crises, growing inequality, and environmental degradation as evidence that Marx’s analysis remains relevant. There are, of course, those who believe Marx was simply wrong, arguing that these cycles of crises are just the natural way a market economy evolves.

Know more:

Marx on Capitalism and Exploitation 

Marx on Human Nature, Alienation and The Structures of Capitalist Society

Marx's Perception of History in The German Ideology: dialectics and capitalism

Marx's Law of Increasing Concentration of Capital

Marx on Contradictions of Capitalism

Marx on the Crises of Capitalism 

When Marx Met Freud - Freudo-Marxism explained

Freudo-Marxism is a philosophical movement that aims to connect the works of Karl Marx and the psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud. This interdisciplinary field of study began to emerge in the 1920s and 1930s, and it has since influenced many generations of intellectuals.

Wilhelm Reich, an Austrian psychoanalyst and a member of the second generation of psychoanalysts after Sigmund Freud, is considered the father of Freudo-Marxism. Reich's work, "Dialectical Materialism and Psychoanalysis," was published in German and Russian in the bilingual communist theoretical journal Under the Banner of Marxism in 1929. Later, Otto Fenichel wrote an article called "Psychoanalysis as the Core of the Future Dialectical Materialist Psychology," which appeared in Wilhelm Reich's book "Zeitschrift fur Politische Psychologie und Sexualökonomie" ("Journal of Political Psychology and Sexual Economics") in 1934. Erich Fromm, one of the members of the Berlin group of Marxist psychoanalysts, later brought the ideas of Freudo-Marxism to the Frankfurt School.

The Frankfurt School, which arose out of the Institute for Social Research, took on the task of choosing which parts of Marx's thought could help clarify social conditions that Marx himself had never seen. The theories put forward by them were a fusion of Marxist criticism of bourgeois society based on the works of D. Lukács, K. Korsch, A. Gramsci and others, the dialectics of G. Hegel, psychoanalysis of Z. Freud, the concepts of culture and civilization of A. Schopenhauer, F. Nietzsche, O Spengler, the philosophy of I. Kant and others.

One of the famous representatives of Freudo-Marxism from the Frankfurt School is Herbert Marcuse, who wrote the work “Eros and Civilization” (1955). He views history not as a class struggle but as a struggle against the suppression of our instincts. He argues that capitalism prevents a person from achieving a non-repressive society "on the basis of a fundamentally different experience of being, fundamentally different relations between man and nature, and fundamentally different existential relations." Another well-known representative of Freudo-Marxism from the Frankfurt School is Erich Fromm, who wrote the 1955 book "The Sane Society," which talks about humanistic, democratic socialism. Based primarily on the writings of Karl Marx, Fromm concludes that today's society consists of dehumanizing and bureaucratic social structures that have led to the almost universal contemporary phenomenon of alienation.

Freudo-Marxism has also influenced French psychoanalysts such as Jacques Lacan, whose point of view began to prevail in French psychiatry and psychology. Lacan considered himself a faithful heir to Freud's ideas. Lacan's influence created a new mutual enrichment of Freudian and Marxist ideas.

Louis Althusser, widely regarded as an ideological theorist, has contributed to the development of the concept of ideology based on Gramsci's theory of hegemony. Althusser, whose most famous essay is "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatus: Notes for Research," describes structures and systems that allow us to have a meaningful understanding of ourselves. These structures, for Althusser, are both agents of repression and inevitable - it is impossible to avoid ideology, not to be influenced by it. The distinction between ideology and science or philosophy is not guaranteed once and for all.

In conclusion, Freudo-Marxism is an interdisciplinary field of study that aims to connect the works of Karl Marx and the psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud. This movement has influenced many generations of intellectuals and has had a significant impact on the fields of politics, psychology, and philosophy.

Sartre's concept of bad faith and Marx's false consciousness

There are some similarities between Jean-Paul Sartre's concept of bad faith and Karl Marx's concept of false consciousness. Both concepts deal with the idea of individuals denying their true selves and conforming to societal expectations, however they differ in their root causes and the extent to which individuals are responsible for their own self-deception. Some scholars have argued that Sartre's concept of bad faith can be seen as a response to Marx's critique of false consciousness. In bad faith, individuals deny their own freedom and responsibility, which can be seen as a response to Marx's critique of the false consciousness that arises from capitalist ideology. While Sartre's philosophy is not explicitly Marxist, his emphasis on individual responsibility and the importance of recognizing societal forces that influence behavior shares some similarities with Marxist thought.

Sartre's concept of bad faith is a state of being where individuals deceive themselves into believing that they are not responsible for their actions. Bad faith involves denying one's freedom and responsibility for their actions. Sartre argues that individuals use bad faith to avoid the anxiety and responsibility that comes with making choices. The individual is responsible for their own self-deception in bad faith, as they are the ones who choose to deny their freedom and responsibility.

On the other hand, Marx's concept of false consciousness is a result of capitalist ideology. Marx believes that the ruling class uses ideology to control the working class and maintain their power. False consciousness involves denying the true nature of one's social conditions. Unlike bad faith, false consciousness is not a choice made by the individual, but rather a product of external forces imposed upon them.

Despite these differences, both concepts emphasize the importance of individuals recognizing their true selves and the societal forces that influence their behavior. Both concepts also involve conforming to societal expectations and denying one's true self. However, the root causes of this conformity are different.

Sartre on Love and Freedom

Best Books by and on Karl Marx- a reading list

Karl Marx is one of the most influential social and political thinkers in modern times Here is a reading list and a recommended reading order to some of the most important books by Marx and on him. To learn more about Marx's philosophy before going into his books read our summary of Marx's ideas. (links in the following reading list take you to Amazon, doesn't cost you any extra but helps us a bit, thanks!). 

 

Books by Karl Marx

The best place to start reading Marx is the communist Manifesto (translation available online). This short and concise text is aimed at explaining much of what Marx wanted to say (here is a summary of the Communist Manifesto).

If you want to start with a good understanding of where Marx is coming from his Early Writings are a good place to start. Pay special attention to the wonderful and insightful The German Ideology.

Marx's most significant book is The Capital. But before reading The capital bear in mind that this is a very ardious and lengthy reading which isn't always very rewarding. Still, you can't really know Marx without reading The Capital (there is also an Abridged Edition).

 

Another option for the first Marx book on your shelf is one of these collections: 

  

 

Recommended Books on Karl Marx

One of the classic books on Karl Marx and the top of any reading list is Isaiah Berlin's intellectual biography titled simply Karl Marx. This book will give you a good overview of Marx's theory as well as an in-depth understanding of it.

Another biographical option is Michael Heinrich's Karl Marx and the Birth of Modern Society: The Life of Marx and the Development of His Work . For a focus on Marx's personal life try Karl Marx: A Life From Beginning to End.

It should always be remembered that Marx is more than anything a philosopher of history, and for that end we have Cohen's Karl Marx's Theory of History and García-Quesada's Karl Marx, Historian of Social Times and Spaces dealing with Historical Materialism. 

For the academics we have The Cambridge Companion to Marx and the pricy Oxford handbook of Karl Marx, both full of high-end research and insight,

For two great books by other philosophers writing about Marx check out Louis Althusser's For Marx and Reading Marx by Slavoj Žižek.

 

Summaries, reviews and explanations to help you with reading Marx

Class Consciousness

False Consciousness

Dictatorship of the Proletariat

Alienation

fetishization of commodities

Means of Production

Karl Marx – The German Ideology – summary, review and analysis

A Short Summary of The Communist Manifesto by Marx and Engels

An Extended Summary of The Communist Manifesto by Marx and Engels 

Ideology according to Marx – definition and explanation

Marx's Materialist Theory of History - Summary and Explanation

Class Conflict - short summary and definition

Capitalism and Exploitation - Summary

Commodity - Summary and Explanation

Human Nature, Alienation and The Structures of Capitalist Society - summary

The Dialectic and the Dialectical Method - Summary

Marx's Perception of History in The German Ideology: praxis, property and the division of labor

The German Ideology: Alienation and Ideology – summary and analysis

Marx's Dialectical Approach and Materialist Interpretation of History

Class Struggle

alienation and freedom

Value and Surplus Value theory

The Reserve Army of Labor / Unemployed 

 Law of Increasing Concentration of Capital

Contradictions of Capitalism

The Crises of Capitalism 

The Proletarian Revolution 

The dictatorship of the Proletariat 

The Communist Manifesto: main points explained and summarized

The Communist Manifesto includes an introduction, three main chapters and a chapter with conclusions. It begins with a famous phrase: " A ghost walks through Europe - the ghost of communism " and ends with the expression, no less known, " Proletarians of all countries, unite! ”

The Communist Manifesto claims that in human history, there has always been a class war. The upper class suppresses the lower class. The bourgeoisie measures each person according to what he gives. The bourgeoisie has run a contractual company. The hired laborer works in a monotonous job, the opposite of a person's desire to know as much as possible.

The results of the revolution: either the decline of both classes or a change in society. Assuming a change, a third class arose, which would one day seize power. This body will create a new historical dimension in relation to its predecessor, and will be built of two classes with an internal conflict, which will again give rise to a revolution and return This process is called a dialectical process - anything that exists now or in the past produces something new. The new will create something new that will change it as well.

Marx did not know how the revolution would happen but he knew it would happen. The proletariat has a group that understands the move and the historical necessity to rebel - a group called the Communists. Their role is to instill class consciousness in the proletariat. To organize them into a struggle. They will be the avant-garde (going forward) towards change. The workers must take over and change the bourgeoisie by abolishing the right to private property.

* Marx denies nationalism: Nationalism is a patent of the bourgeoisie to preserve their status. They argue that the country should be developed, but in practice the rich get richer and the poor become poorer.

* He also denies the utopian socialists , because they seek only minor amendments in favor of the workers within the existing framework, and do not seek to change it.

The main social changes provided for in the Manifesto of the Communist Party are:

1. Expropriation of land ownership and use of land rent to cover state expenses.

2. Strongly progressive tax.

3. Abolition of the right of inheritance.

4. Confiscation of the property of all emigrants and rebels.

5. Centralization of credit in the hands of the state with the help of a national bank with state capital and exclusive monopoly.

6. Centralization of all means of transport in the hands of the state.

7. Increasing the number of state-owned factories, production tools, land clearing and improvement according to a general plan.

8. Equal obligation to work for all, the organization of industrial armies, especially for agriculture.

9. Combining agricultural and industrial work, measures aimed at gradually removing the opposition between the village and the city.

10. Free public education for all children. Prohibition of factory work for children, in its current form. Combining education with material production, etc., etc.

see also a detailed summary of the Communist Manifesto

Best Books by and on Karl Marx- a reading list

Notable quotes from the Communist Manifesto

Some important quotes from Karl Marx's Communist Manifesto

“By bourgeoisie is meant the class of modern capitalists who own the social means of production and employ wage labor. By proletarians we mean the class of modern salaried workers who, possessing no means of production of their own, are reduced to selling their labor power in order to be able to live. "(Engels note from 1888)

“It is high time that the Communists openly expose their way of seeing, their goals and their tendencies to the whole world and oppose the legends of the Communist specter with a manifesto of the party itself. "

"Modern governments are only a committee managing the common affairs of the bourgeoisie as a whole."

“Bourgeois relations of production and exchange, bourgeois property relations, modern bourgeois society which has given birth as if by magic to such powerful means of production and exchange resembles the sorcerer who can no longer control the infernal powers that 'he mentioned "

“The middle class […] fight against the bourgeoisie because it compromises their existence as a middle class. […] If they act revolutionary, it is out of the ever-present fear of falling into the proletariat; they therefore defend their future interests, and not their current interests; they give up their own point of view to place themselves at that of the proletariat "

“A specter haunts Europe - the specter of communism. "

“The history of any society up to the present day is the history of the class struggle. "

“The proletarians have nothing to lose except their chains. They have a world to win. Workers of all countries, unite! "

The Cummunist Manifesto Explained Simply

The Manifesto of the Communist Party or Cummunist Manifesto can be seen as a summary of “Marxist” thought. By qualifying itself as communist, the Cummunist Manifesto seeks to differentiate itself from the rest of the socialism of the time, considered as utopian . 

The text begins by expressing the importance of the class struggle, which opposes “oppressors and oppressed” . According to Marx, “Modern bourgeois society, raised on the ruins of feudal society, has not abolished class antagonisms. It only substituted new classes, new conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle for those of the past”. But the modern class struggle is specific in the sense that it boils down to a simplified antagonism : bourgeois against proletarians .

The Cummunist Manifesto then notes the formation of a world market  : “Driven by the need for ever new outlets, the bourgeoisie is invading the entire globe. It needs to establish itself everywhere, to exploit everywhere, to establish relationships everywhere. By exploiting the world market, the bourgeoisie gives a cosmopolitan character to the production and consumption of all countries. Much to the despair of the reactionaries, it has deprived industry of its national base ” . The existence of capitalism is an improvement over the previous period, but it must end when the proletariat ends the rule of the bourgeoisie.“All historical movements have so far been carried out by minorities or for the benefit of minorities. The proletarian movement is the spontaneous movement of the immense majority for the benefit of the immense majority ” .

Marx writes that “The essential condition for the existence and domination of the bourgeois class is the accumulation of wealth in the hands of individuals, the formation and growth of capital  ; the condition for the existence of capital is wage labor . " Believing that " The workers have no country " , it is to end the reign of capital around the world.

The Cummunist Manifesto states that "The Communists do not form a distinct party opposed to the other workers' parties" . This can be explained as follows: “The theoretical conceptions of the Communists are not at all based on ideas, principles invented or discovered by this or that reformer of the world. They are only the general expression of the real conditions of an existing class struggle, of a historical movement which is taking place before our eyes ” .

In the text, Marx addresses the bourgeois directly, refuting each of their possible objections against communism: on the abolition of private property , of inheritance and of child labor , on liberty, on the family, on the progressive tax and free public education for all children, etc. Regime change requires a break with bourgeois ideology and an international union of proletarians.

Communist society is characterized in the Cummunist Manifesto as follows: "In place of the old bourgeois society, with its classes and class antagonisms, an association arises where the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all" .

The third chapter of the Cummunist Manifesto examines and critiques the various “socialist” currents of the time. Marx strives to criticize them with vigor and accumulates sarcasm towards them. For example, he qualifies Proudhon as a “bourgeois socialist” who “only attains his adequate expression when he becomes a mere figure of rhetoric: Free trade, in the interest of the working class! Protective rights, in the interest of the working class! Cellular prisons, in the interests of the working class! "

Finally, the last chapter of the Cummunist Manifesto attempts to identify immediate prospects for the Communists in Europe before the revolutions of 1848 . Communists “fight for the immediate interests and goals of the working class  ; but in the present movement, they defend and represent at the same time the future of the movement”, and “work for the union and the understanding of the democratic parties of all the countries”. The text ends with the famous slogan: “ Workers of all countries, unite!  "

See also: The Communist Manifesto - detailed summary by chapter

Notable quotes from the Communist Manifesto

Meaning of Dialectical Materialism Explained Simply

Dialectical Materialism is a method that examines the tension ( dialectic ) between the recognition of the human and the nature and reality of the social surrounding. Dialectical materialism was first developed by Karl Marx and Marxist theory , and serves as a very common element in the field of social critique, even among the deniers of this Torah.

 

Marxist theory assumes that human behavior and way of thinking always exist in a social space. Every human activity refers to what is done by humans, and affects them. This has two meanings:

Each activity affects three factors: nature (= matter, the object ), the active person (the subject ), and society. Of course, the person does not understand the full range of influence that his activity has, but he is able to grasp large parts of it, or not understand it at all.

The activity depends on the society, its laws, and its social structure. Only a person who is without other human beings in his vicinity and without influence over humans and of humans on him, is not a social creature. It is not relevant to engage in such a person as he is almost non-existent. This claim also exists on the surface, in the form of the person's behavior, and also in his consciousness and perception of the activity and its goals.

social being determines consciousness

"social being determines consciousness" losly based on The German Ideology expresses the principles of dialectical materialism, argues that the praxis in which man lives determines his perceptions and understanding of the world, and in fact its meaning. This sentence holds even if the person does not recognize it or understand it.

The meaning of this sentence can be begun and understood by the division that Marx maintains between the two components of society:

The company base which includes the production methods, means of production and method of resource allocation. The basis is in fact the material status of the company, and is influenced both by the existing technology and the wealth of the company, and by historical processes that it has undergone. The basis is also called the production ratio .

The superstructure of society contains the laws , institutions , culture and norms . The superstructure expresses a person 's consciousness and way of thinking.

Dialectical materialism proceeds from the premise that the superstructure is shaped by the base and is inseparable from it. Dialectical materialism is a change of consciousness from the social theories that preceded it, in that it measures society primarily through the base, rather than through the superstructure.

The action of praxis on man has several stages of consciousness

First, man perceives in his senses the various impressions from the reality in which he operates. When these impressions are split and illegal.

Man casts from his subjective world on the experience of reality in a primitive way, by a set of emotions and feelings created in him following the encounter with reality. These stages constitute the sensory consciousness of man.

Man then recognizes legality and order in the sensory perception, which lead to the creation of a mental paradigm . This paradigm is the praxis in which man lives.

The last stage is the stage in which man reacts to paradigms created in his consciousness, and creates a subjective reference to them by determining opinion and a world of values. These two stages are called rational consciousness .

In this process, the rule is expressed according to which being determines consciousness (cognition). It is a two-way process, as human consciousness reshapes its being, by man acting and changing reality according to his consciousness.

Dialectical materialism seeks to study the mutual influence of external reality, measured by ordinary fields of science (natural sciences, life sciences, social sciences), and of human consciousness, examined from a sociological-philosophical point of view.

Dialectical materialism is subject to its own laws, since it is itself a thought paradigm.

Stichia 

Dialectical materialism holds that even when a person performs a purposeful activity, he is not directed to all the results of his actions (both on the personal level and on the historical level). Also, man is shaped by factors in reality that he does not actively address. The unintentional design of a person or reality is called in the Marxist language Stichia . For example: A person works in a field to grow food . Another product of this activity (besides food) is the development of its muscles. This is not his intention, so it is a static result of growing food.

Awareness of the design of the world is not enough: only when a process is directed and becomes the object of activity does it cease to be static. In the previous example: a person may know that his muscles will develop, but not because of this he grows food.

See also: Cultural Materisalism

See also: Marx's German Ideology Explained Simply

Read more on Marx and Marxism concepts and terms.

The German Ideology: Main ideas and themes explained

The German Ideology is a series of manuscripts written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels around 1845 .

The German ideology is today considered one of the most important philosophical works

The German Ideology is shaped as a critique of young Hegelians such as Ludwig Feuerbach , Max Stirner and Bruno Bauer , and provides the first interpretation of Marx and Engels' theory of history, which has later been called historical materialism .

Centeal themes and ideas in The German Ideology

The materialist conception 

The first part of The German Ideology is entitled "Feuerbach materialist conception against idealist conception". It exposes the bases of materialism as well as the criticism of the young Hegelians. German thought is most fruitful. The decomposition of Hegelian thought has become universal fermentation (Hegel appears to be at the center of German thought and of Marx himself, who constantly positions himself in relation to him).

What individuals are depends on material conditions so much so that it is by producing their means of existence [that] men indirectly produce their material life itself. But the production intervenes with the increase of the population which supposes a trade between the individuals. “It is not consciousness that determines life but life that determines consciousness. The idealistic philosophers did not advance the deliverance of man because their methodology is not adequate. See Dialectical Materialism.

Division of labor 

The first act in history according to Marx is the creation of means to meet the needs of material life. And this leads in a second step to a repetition. We are therefore witnessing a multiplication of needs due to new social relations and the constant growth of the population. So cooperation is a productive force. Language arises from the natural necessity of commerce between men. Consciousness is therefore a social product (which is why animals have no language). The first stage of the division of labor is a division between the sexes, but it acquires its true value from the moment when intellectual and manual labor are separated. And that's when consciousness emancipates itself from the world and becomes capable of theorizing. The division of laborwithin a nation first of all separates industry / commerce from agricultural labor. Hence the opposition between town and country and antagonism of interests.

The division of labor leads to conflict because production and consumption fall to different people. It also involves property whose seeds are found in the family where wife and children are the slaves of the father. This is how the division of labor leads to the establishment of antagonisms between the interests of each other. Thus division of labor and private property are identical expressions, the first expressing in relation to the activity what the second expresses in relation to the product of this activity.

It follows that all the struggles within the state (democracy for example) are only illusory forms in which the struggles of the different classes between them are carried out. So any class that aspires to domination must first seize the state.

“Communism is for us neither a state which must be created, nor an ideal on which reality will have to be regulated. We call communism the real movement that abolishes the current state. The conditions of this movement result from the currently existing premises. "

“The conditions for this movement result from the prior data as it currently exists. The consequence of the world market is that these individuals [the proletariat] lead an existence which is directly linked to universal history. Therefore the proletariat can only exist as a historical and world force. " See Means of Production, relation of production, means of production

or praxis, property and the division of labor

History and Conscience 

History is the succession of generations which come after and exploit the materials, the capital as well as the productive forces bequeathed by all the preceding generations. So a new generation takes over the activity of the old one on the one hand and modifies it on the other hand.

The risk with history is to think that the history to come is the goal of the past history, whereby history is assigned particular ends. However, the course of history leads to a world history (like the production). The liberation of each individual will only come about then. The engine of history, religion and philosophy is not criticism but revolution. However, Marx goes beyond materialist theory because he admits that men make circumstances. see dialectics and capitalism in the German Ideology. 

Classes and dominant ideas 

The ideas of the ruling class are the ruling ideas. The dominant material power is therefore also the dominant spiritual power. Dominant thoughts are nothing more than the expression in ideas of the dominant material conditions. The proletariat has no history, which has the consequence that it has not been able to develop as the particular interest of a particular class. see Class Consciousness.

Genesis of capital and the modern state 

Capital results from the principle of the division of labor and the state of local particularity. The revolts of the Middle Ages started from the countryside but their failure was total because of their dispersion. The difficulty of communication and the small population prevented a strong division of labor. A real relationship of dependence is therefore established between the craftsman and his work. He does not have the indifference to his labor that the modern worker has. But the conditions change, competition is established between the nations and the manufacture arrives. From then on, trade took on political significance. The expansion of this trade accelerated the accumulation of mobile, modern (as opposed to primitive) capital. Then came big industry, monopolies within nations, the completion of capital.

"It was she who finally created universal history, insofar as she placed every civilized nation and every individual of this nation under the dependence of the whole world for the satisfaction of their needs, thus abolishing the primitive and traditional isolation of many nations. It took away from the division of labor the air of spontaneity and naturalness that it still had […]. It consecrated the city's victory over the countryside. "

Genesis of the bourgeoisie 

In the Middle Ages, the townspeople were forced to unite against the nobility of the countryside in order to defend their existence. The expansion of commerce and communications led each city to become acquainted with other cities which had the same interests in the struggle against the same adversary (a class becomes aware of itself through antagonism).

See also: Marx's German Ideology Explained Simply

Read more on Marx and Marxism concepts and terms.

Marx's German Ideology Explained Simply

In their German Ideology Marx and Engels argue that humans are distinguished from animals from the moment they start producing their livelihoods. Individuals are the product of the way they make their livelihoods and what those livelihoods are. Thus, according to Marx and Engels, the nature of individuals depends on material conditions that determine their production.

The extent to which a nation's productive forces have developed can be judged by the degree to which a nation has implemented the principle of division of labour. In addition, there is a direct link between the social division of labor and forms of ownership.

The ruling class, which governs the material dimension of society, is thus at the same time the class which governs the intellectual dimension. It regulates the production and dissemination of ideas of its era. As the ruling class changes over the years, the ideals it produces and disseminate change, it is therefore incumbent upon the ruling class to make society believe that its ideals are universal in nature. This system persists as long as a society is organized around the need for a ruling class.

To clarify this theoretical framework, Marx and Engels introduce the image of the substructure and superstructure. Historical developments, which are part of the superstructure, are only the reflections of changes of the substructure, which consists of the economic and material relations of a society. When there is a change in those proportions, the superstructure follows automatically. Here the work of Marx and Engels leads to a form of ideology critique: ideas and thus ideologies are not the cause of historical changes, but the consequence thereof. This view of ideology enables Marx and Engels to dismiss views of the proletariat that are clearly against its own interests as forms of false consciousness., that is, as ideas emanating from the ruling class.

During revolutions, changes in the substructure lead to eruptions of the superstructure. The ideas that are central during a revolution are nothing but the reflection of tensions that were already present in the less visible substructure.

The core of The German Ideology can be summarized as follows. Morality, religion, metaphysics and all other forms of ideology and their attendant forms of consciousness lose any form of independence. They are only a reflection of the way people generate and distribute their livelihoods, and only by focusing on the production of their livelihoods is it possible for them to change their ideas and daily lives.

See also: The German Ideology: Main ideas and themes explained

Further reading on Marx's The German Ideology

Marx's Perception of History in The German Ideology: praxis, property and the division of labor

Marx's Perception of History in The German Ideology: relation of production, means of production

Marx's Perception of History in The German Ideology: dialectics and capitalism

Marx's The German Ideology: Alienation and Ideology – summary and analysis

Ideology according to Marx – definition and explanation

 

Best Books by and on Karl Marx- a reading list

Meaning of Hegemony Explained and Defined

Definition: Hegemony is a state of total rule of one state over those around it geographically in a political, economic or military way. The absolute power which is in the hands of this society has been achieved while successfully promoting geopolitical interests beyond any other group in its vicinity so that they can not compete. Hegemony is the ability to dictate the laws and arrangements under which relations between states or groups exist in a defined geopolitical area. Today the term is used to describe the sociological arrangements under which the relations between the various groups exist within one society. The word is more in the context of "cultural hegemony" than of hegemony between countries. The term comes from ancient Greece where it was used to describe the dominance of one city-state over all the city-states around it.

According to the Italian neo-Marxist thinker Antonio Gramsci (on Hegemony), the power of the bourgeoisie is that control rests not only on its economic foundation (infrastructure), but mainly on its superstructure ( intellectuals , senior figures in the world of culture , law , religion and politics ) - the value and ideological foundations desired by it. When the bourgeoisie is able to assimilate its values ​​and turn them into a model of imitation and admiration among the lower classes, it no longer has to impose its rule by force of arms.

Hegemony is a state of absolute (or almost absolute) rule in a society, concentrated in the hands of a defined social group, and manifested in the sharing of the rulers in the material resources that society with its ideological and ideological rulers. The hegemony describes a state of control over social arrangements, norms and rules, and it shapes the face of society according to hegemonic values ​​that serve the interests and needs of the ruling group.

Hegemony also weakens the cultural system as a whole, and it permeates all the intellectual aspects of daily life. It is an unconscious system of control, in which the hegemonic components and values ​​are not at all perceived as part of a dominant culture or ideology, but are seen as an integral part of society and its values, regardless of the control group. In this way, minorities also identify with these values, which take on an extra-political garnet, and intensify into apparent facts, myths or absolute statements that are true of the same society.

back to: Marx and Marxism concepts and terms explained

Marx's False Consciousness explained

Definition: False consciousness is a term that refers - especially in Marxist thought - to the mismatch between perceptions , values , views and ideology of human beings and their position in the class social system . False consciousness is expressed when an ideology controls the consciousness of an oppressed person or oppressed group, in a way that justifies or preserves the oppression.

The consciousness and experience according to Karl Marx derivatives being. Although Marx himself probably never used the phrase, and it first appears in the writings of Friedrich Engels , according to the Marxist conception, the upper class has personal interests which create a false consciousness in the lower class and in the proletariat , the so-called " opium for the masses ". This consciousness is created by the interests of the upper class - the bourgeoisie - to preserve its place.

Marx believed that true consciousness is Class Consciousness. The state of the individual in the social structure determines his consciousness, and in the structure there are two classes - upper and lower. The determination of consciousness is made through the production relationship between the work of the individual and the ownership of capital . Marx argued that this consciousness would inevitably change and lead to a change in structure. The revolution stems from the workers and their consciousness that stems from materialism and from the historical conflict that underlies society .

For example, views on the importance of cultivating a free economy among people who have no control over means of production or production processes (such as a junior bank clerk , seamstresses in a textile factory or construction workers) are views of false consciousness, according to Marx. These views supposedly contribute to the continued exploitation of people in their position and are much more appropriate for their superiors and managers.

The false consciousness can explain why human beings living in a modern capitalist system are acting contrary to their seemingly true interests.

back to: Marx and Marxism concepts and terms explained