Buber’s Critique of Modernity: The Eclipse of God

Martin Buber’s philosophical work offers a profound critique of modernity, particularly through his concept of the “eclipse of God.” In this idea, Buber addresses the growing spiritual and moral disconnect that characterizes modern life. As technology, rationalism, and secularism have taken center stage, the sense of divine presence and meaning in everyday life has diminished. The "eclipse of God" represents this perceived loss, as humanity drifts further away from authentic relationships with both the divine and each other. Through this critique, Buber warns that the absence of the divine creates a moral vacuum, leading to an increase in alienation, objectification, and spiritual emptiness in modern society.

The Eclipse of God: A Metaphor for Spiritual Disconnection

Buber describes the phenomenon in which God's presence is obscured, not by divine withdrawal, but by human choice. Just as an eclipse of the sun temporarily hides the source of light and warmth, the eclipse of God symbolizes the human inability to experience or recognize the divine. In modernity, Buber argues, humanity has increasingly turned away from the I-Thou relationship—the direct, meaningful encounter with others, the world, and God—and toward an I-It mode of being, where people and objects are reduced to mere utilities and means to an end. This shift has significant consequences for how individuals understand themselves, their communities, and the broader world.

For Buber, the eclipse of God is not a mere absence of belief in a higher power, but a deeper existential crisis in which the sacred dimension of life is lost. Modern humans, he suggests, have become disconnected from the mystery and transcendence that once permeated their daily experiences. This disconnection is fueled by the increasing dominance of scientific rationalism, materialism, and instrumental thinking, which reduce the complexity of life to facts and functions while ignoring the profound spiritual dimension.

Modernity’s Obsession with I-It Relations

A key aspect of Buber's critique of modernity is how it prioritizes the I-It relationship—a form of interaction where people, nature, and even spiritual experiences are treated as objects. The I-It relationship is utilitarian and impersonal, often found in scientific and economic approaches that dominate contemporary life. In these relationships, others are viewed through a lens of detachment, as resources or obstacles to be managed or exploited. While necessary for navigating certain practical aspects of life, Buber argues that when the I-It mode becomes the dominant way of engaging with the world, it strips life of its inherent meaning and spiritual depth.

In contrast, Buber’s I-Thou relationship involves genuine dialogue, mutual recognition, and the embrace of the other as a whole being. It is not transactional but transformative. The I-Thou moment is fleeting and cannot be sustained indefinitely, but it is crucial to maintaining our humanity and spiritual integrity. Modernity, however, with its focus on efficiency, productivity, and rationalism, often overlooks or actively suppresses these I-Thou encounters. In doing so, society loses touch with the divine dimension of life, contributing to the eclipse of God.

The Alienation of Modern Life

Buber saw modernity as deeply alienating, not only in its relationship to God but in its impact on human relationships. As the focus on individualism, consumerism, and technology grows, human connections become shallower, more superficial, and less genuine. Social structures in modern life—such as mass production, bureaucracy, and digital communication—reinforce the I-It framework, making it difficult for people to form authentic connections with one another. In a society where the transactional is valued over the relational, individuals are increasingly isolated, and the potential for meaningful, spiritual connection is diminished.

This alienation is not only a personal experience but also a societal one. Buber was deeply concerned with the moral consequences of the eclipse of God. Without a connection to the divine or to the greater spiritual reality, society risks falling into moral relativism, where ethical principles are determined by convenience or consensus rather than a deeper sense of shared human values. Buber warns that in such a world, the absence of a transcendent moral anchor leads to greater conflict, injustice, and dehumanization.

Restoring the I-Thou: A Path to Redemption

Despite his critique, Buber does not see the eclipse of God as an irreversible condition. For Buber, the divine is not absent; it is merely hidden, awaiting rediscovery. The path to restoring this connection lies in the restoration of the I-Thou relationship, which Buber believes is not just possible but essential. By choosing to engage with the world and others in a spirit of dialogue, openness, and mutual recognition, individuals can break through the alienation that characterizes modern life and rediscover a sense of meaning, purpose, and spiritual presence.

This restoration requires a shift in mindset—away from seeing others, nature, and even God as objects to be used and controlled, and toward seeing them as Thou, as subjects worthy of respect and dialogue. This means engaging with others not merely for personal gain or out of habit but with a genuine openness to who they are and what they represent.

Redemption of Evil in Buber’s Thought

Martin Buber's philosophy offers a profound and distinctive perspective on the nature of evil and the path to overcoming it. While he is best known for his work on dialogue, community, and relationships, his reflections on evil, its role in human life, and its potential for redemption are crucial aspects of his thought.

Buber does not view evil as an absolute or irredeemable force. Instead, he sees it as something that can be understood, addressed, and ultimately transformed through dialogue and human action. For Buber, evil is not a separate, independent power opposed to good, but a distortion of the natural harmony between individuals, and between individuals and the divine. Evil arises when the I-Thou relationship—characterized by mutual respect, openness, and genuine encounter—breaks down, giving way to the I-It relationship, where people and things are objectified, used, and reduced to mere tools. This objectification fosters separation and alienation, which are central to Buber’s understanding of evil.

The Nature of Evil: Alienation and Objectification

Evil, in Buber’s view, is fundamentally relational and relative. It thrives when authentic encounters are replaced by utilitarian transactions, when people lose the ability to see each other as whole beings and instead treat them as means to an end. This breakdown in relationships not only harms individuals but also erodes the fabric of communities and societies. The more we objectify others, the more we sever the connections that bind us together in meaningful, human ways.

The Eclipse of God

One of Buber’s most significant contributions to the discourse on evil is his concept of the "eclipse of God." This term refers to times in human history, or in a person’s life, when God’s presence seems distant or obscured, and the divine connection between individuals and the sacred is weakened. According to Buber, evil flourishes in these moments of divine absence. When people lose their sense of divine immanence and presence, they are more likely to fall into patterns of objectification, manipulation, and harm.

However, Buber asserts that the eclipse of God is not permanent. It is part of a broader spiritual cycle in which God’s presence, while it may fade, can be rediscovered through efforts to restore relationships—both between people and with the divine. In this view, evil is not rooted in an inherent darkness in the world but in a failure of relationship and dialogue, both of which can be renewed.

Redemption Through Dialogue

For Buber, the solution to evil lies in his philosophy of dialogue. He does not advocate for evil to be eradicated through force or punishment; rather, he believes that evil can be redeemed—transformed into good—through genuine human encounters. By reestablishing the I-Thou relationship, individuals can heal the brokenness that gives rise to evil. Redemption, in Buber’s framework, is not an abstract concept but a practical process that involves openness, empathy, and a commitment to engaging with others as whole beings, not as objects.

In Hasidic thought, which deeply influenced Buber, there is a belief that even evil contains sparks of divine potential that can be released and transformed. Buber extends this idea, suggesting that genuine human relationships, rooted in the I-Thou encounter, have the power to turn negative experiences into positive ones. Meeting another person fully and honestly is a redemptive act, as it restores the connection that evil has disrupted.

Evil and Human Freedom

Buber also explores the relationship between evil and human freedom. He argues that the potential for evil arises from the same freedom that allows for love, creativity, and authentic relationships. Humans are free to choose whether to treat others as objects (I-It) or as Thou. This freedom means that evil is always a possible consequence of human action, but it also implies that redemption is always within reach. The same freedom that leads to alienation and harm can be redirected toward restoration and dialogue.

The Role of Community in Overcoming Evil

In addition to individual efforts, Buber highlights the importance of community in the process of redeeming evil. A community grounded in dialogue, where members recognize and engage with each other as Thou, creates an environment where evil is less likely to thrive. In such a community, people hold each other accountable for maintaining authentic relationships, and there is a collective effort to undo the harm caused by evil through shared responsibility and care.

Transforming Evil Through Relationship

For Buber, evil is not an immutable force but a relative distortion that can be redeemed through genuine dialogue and human action. His approach emphasizes the power of relationships, the importance of human freedom, and the potential for transformation within communities. By restoring the I-Thou relationship and reestablishing a connection with the divine, individuals and societies can overcome the separation and alienation that lead to evil. Through this process, Buber offers a hopeful vision in which evil can be transformed and the brokenness of the world can be healed.

The I-Thou Relationship in Buber's Philosophy

Martin Buber's philosophy revolves around the concept of the I-Thou relationship, a central theme in his existential and dialogical thought. This idea, introduced in his seminal work I and Thou (1923), distinguishes between two fundamental modes of human interaction: I-Thou and I-It.

I-Thou vs. I-It

The I-Thou relationship is a direct, mutual encounter between two beings, characterized by openness, presence, and connection. In this encounter, each party experiences the other as a subject, not as an object, recognizing the wholeness and uniqueness of the other person or entity. This relationship transcends transactional or superficial interactions—it is a meeting of whole persons, free from preconceptions or expectations.

Conversely, the I-It relationship treats the other as an object, something to be used, analyzed, or categorized. In this mode, we approach others not as fully realized beings but through a lens of utility, reducing them to their functions or roles. Buber argues that much of modern life is dominated by the I-It mode, where relationships become instrumental, and the depth of genuine connection is often lost.

The Sacred Nature of I-Thou

Buber contends that the I-Thou encounter holds a sacred dimension. It is not confined to interpersonal relationships but extends to nature, art, and even God. When we encounter nature in an I-Thou manner, we perceive its beauty and mystery, rather than reducing it to mere scientific analysis. Similarly, in the realm of art, we can experience an I-Thou moment when we engage deeply with a painting, a piece of music, or literature, allowing it to speak to us in its entirety.

For Buber, the "ultimate Thou" is God, whom we encounter not through rituals or doctrines alone, but through direct, personal relationship. The divine is not a distant figure but a presence we experience in everyday I-Thou moments. Through these sacred encounters, we connect with a deeper reality that transcends the ordinary and unites us with the transcendent.

I-Thou in Everyday Life

While the I-Thou relationship is ideal, Buber acknowledges that we cannot live in a constant state of I-Thou. Life demands that we navigate between I-Thou and I-It interactions. The key, however, is to remain open to I-Thou moments and recognize opportunities to move beyond the utilitarian into genuine dialogue. These moments enrich our lives, offering a sense of meaning and connection.

Buber's philosophy has profound implications for human relationships. In education, for example, the I-Thou relationship fosters deeper connections between teachers and students, transforming learning into a more engaging and dialogical process. In therapy, this idea inspired the development of humanistic psychology, where the therapist meets the client as a whole person, fostering true healing through authentic interaction.

I and Thou / Martin Buber - Summary

I and Thou / Martin Buber - Summary 

I and Thou (in German: Ich und Du ) is an influential philosophical essay by Martin Buber published in 1923. The essay presents a dialogical philosophy, a philosophical-social conception that deals with dialogical relationships between human beings, based on honest and direct relationships of affinity as the source of the self.

Joining Jewish influences and an ideological tradition that developed in Europe in the mid -20th century, Buber attaches crucial ontological importance to interpersonal engagement and speech. He made the claim that the existence of man as a subject is created and shaped within the dialogue he exchanges with others. It is the discourse with another that constitutes man as a spiritual personality. It is not the individual person who is a fundamental fact of human existence, but the person who is in affinity with others. The main thing is therefore not the physical existence but the crystallization of the individual consciousness through contact and dialogue with someone else.

Buber's I-thou and I-it

According to Buber, the "I-thou" relationship is found in addressing the other (not only in verbal speech, but first and foremost in mental intention). Buber contrasts the I-thou relatinship with "i-it" which is basically denying the subjectivity of the other in favor of vieing him as an object, an "it". Viewing the othet as a useful means and not as an end is to establish a realtion of alienation. This means that for Buber not seeing the other as a self much like my self means to lose my own selfhood. 

In the I-thou relation Buber sees a revelation of the divine essences inherent in everything, and in fact sees in God the "eternal you."cThe pinnacle of "dialogue" according to Buber is in the ability to meet through any true affinity with the eternal thou. That is, a person accustomed to meeting others in "I am you" will learn that in fact the "eternal you" - God - speaks to him through every concrete "you" with whom he has created an affinity. Life is full of "signs" from the "eternal you" that speaks to you constantly. The person only has to tilt the ear. Buber's novelty is that no man can come to God except through men (in stark oposotion to Danish thinker Soren Kierkegaard).

Martin Buber and The Philosophy of Dialogue Explained

Martib Buber is well known as one of the founders of  "Dialogical Philosophy" or "Philosophy of Dialouge The roots of Buber's "dialogical philosophy" are in German Romantic philosophy on the one hand, and on the other hand Buber's unmediated impression of Hassidic thought as he experienced it in his grandfather's house, from the well-known Shlomo Buber seminary. Most of his thought was published in his book "I and thou" in German in 1923. 

Buber's thought is based on the assumption that "man is made I come with thou." Meaning: A person has no real "I" except when he can say "you" (or "thou") with all his might. Saying "thou" is the complete escape from my "I" into the absorption of the "thou" in its being, in its sincerity, and especially in telling me something of a quality that cannot be quantified (from the word "quantity") or explained to another person. Nor does it mean "thou" as a human being only. 

The pinnacle of "dialogue" according to Buber is in the ability to meet through any true affinity with the "thou" the "thou are eternal". The third part of "I and thou" opens with the sentence "The elongated lines of affiliations meet with each other in the eternal self." That is, a person accustomed to meeting others in the "I am thou" will learn that in fact the "eternal you" - God - speaks to him through every concrete "thou" with whom he has created an affinity. Life is full of "signs" from the "eternal thou" that speaks to thou constantly. The person only has to tilt the ear. Buber's novelty is that no man can come to God but only through men (in this he is conducting a controversy with the Danish thinker Soren Kierkegaard). 

Martin Buber - short introduction

Perhaps the preeminent Jewish existentialist is the Austrian theologian/philosopher Martin Buber Buber wrote extensively on a variety of topics, including Biblical translation, Zionism, Hassidic culture, folklore and his concept of “a philosophy of dialogue”.  He made a major contribution to Jewish existentialism with his popular 1923 book I and Thou (from the German, Ich and Du). The book is concerned with the dual concepts of the “I and You (Thou)” and “I and It” relationship, which is Buber’s attempt to answer several age-old existential questions about the meaning of human existence. Buber says that human beings find meaning in their relationships with other entities in the world, whether these are inanimate objects, other people, or even a spiritual force like God. This Begegnung ("meeting") between human and object is what gives life meaning for each individual human. Buber goes on to show how human beings define themselves in relation to the other, either the "You" or the "I." He says that one’s whole being is made by the relation one has to "The Other," using the elegant phraseology, “When one says You, the I of the word pair I-You is said, too…Being I and saying I are the same.”  And also, “The world as experience belongs to the basic word I-It. The basic word I-You establishes the world of relation.”

The latter parts of Buber’s I and Thou are concerned with the possibility for unity of all being. Buber takes a leaf from the book of Judeo-Christian mysticism and Buddhism and explores the concept of the unity of all beings in the universe. Buber admits that as a practicality, and for purposes of life in the real world, “In lived actuality there is not unity of being.” Because of Buber’s concept of the human being having his existence justified by each new interaction with an ‘I’ or ‘Thou’ object, his preferred brand of theology can be seen “not as pantheism, but as panentheism: not that everything is God, but that God may be in everything…”

Buber wrote on a wide variety of topics. He wrote commentary on the socialist Zionist movement, classic gentile existentialist writers such as Kierkegaard, Dostoyevsky, and Nietzsche, and Hassidic folklore and culture, among many other topics from a variety of disciplines.] In addition to all this, his concepts of the “I and Thou” dialectic and his “philosophy of dialogue” have become standard reading in the realm of positivist existentialist philosophy that seeks to bring meaning to human life. Ronald Gregor Smith writes, “The authentic Jewish note of existential ‘realization’ is never hard to detect.”  Buber had an ultimately optimistic view of people's ability to find meaning in life through the Jewish religion.

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Martin Buber and The Philosophy of Dialogue

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Jewish existentialism - summary

Jewish existentialism is a category of work by Jewish authors dealing with existentialist themes and concepts (e.g. debate about the existence of God and the meaning of human existence), and intended to answer theological questions that are important in Judaism. The existential angst of Job is an example from the Hebrew Bible of the existentialist theme. Theodicy and post-Holocaust theology make up a large part of 20th century Jewish existentialism.

Examples of Jewish thinkers and philosophers whose works include existentialist themes are Martin Buber, Joseph B. Soloveitchik, Lev Shestov, Franz Rosenzweig, Hans Jonas, Emmanuel Levinas, Hannah Arendt, Rabbi Abraham Joshua Heschel, and Emil Fackenheim.

Precursors

Jewish existentialism finds its roots in both the traditional philosophical school of existentialism and the peculiarities of Jewish theology, Biblical commentary, and European Jewish culture. Existentialism as a philosophical system grew as a result of the works of such non-Jewish thinkers as Søren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Albert Camus, and Martin Heidegger.

The Books of Ecclesiastes and Job, found in the Hebrew Bible and often cited as examples wisdom literature in the Hebrew Biblical tradition, both include existentialist themes. The Book of Job tells the story of Job, who is beset by both God and satan by many hardships intended to test his faith. He ultimately keeps his faith and receives redemption and rewards from God. The Book of Job includes many discussions between Job and his friends, as well as between Job and God concerning the nature, origin, and purpose of evil and suffering in the world. The Book of Ecclesiastes is broader in scope and includes many meditations on the meaning of life and God’s purpose for human beings on Earth. Passages in Ecclesiastes describe human existence in such terms as “all is futile” [1] and “futile and pursuit of wind.”  Much Biblical scholarship and Talmud exegesis has been devoted to exploring the apparent contradiction between the affirmation of an all-powerful God’s existence and the futility, meaningless, and/or difficulty of human life. Judaism’s treatment of theodicy makes heavy use of the Books of Job and Ecclesiastes. 

Some of the trends in the modern philosophy of existentialism come from concepts important to early rabbinic and pre-rabbinic Judaism. William Barret’s Irrational Man, which traces the history of existentialist thought in the Western world, explains how the competing worldviews of Greco-Roman culture and Hebrew/Jewish culture have helped shape modern existentialism. Barrett says that the Hebraic concept of the “man of faith” is one “who is passionately committed to his own being.” The Hebrew “man of faith,” Barrett says, trusts in a God who can only know through “experience” and not “reasoning.” Juxtaposed with the believing Hebrew is the skeptical Greek “man of reason” who seeks to attain God through “rational abstraction.” The Greek invention of logic and the tradition of rational philosophical inquiry contributed to Existentialism. The Greeks invented philosophy as an academic discipline and as a way to approach the problems of existence, eventually resulting in the philosophical works of Nietzsche, Heidegger, Sartre, Kierkegaard and other existentialists. Hebraic thought trends had much more of an influence on the important concepts of existentialism. Much of modern existentialism may be seen as more Jewish than Greek. 

Several core concepts found in the ancient Hebrew tradition that are often cited as the most important concepts explored by existentialism, for example, the “uneasiness” “deep within Biblical man,” also his “sinfulness” and “feebleness and finiteness.”  While “the whole impulse of philosophy for Plato arises from an ardent search for escape from the evils of the world and the curse of time,”  Biblical Judaism recognizes the impossibility of trying to transcend the world entirely via intellectualism, lofty thoughts, and ideals. As the late Jewish existentialist Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik (b. 1903-1993) articulates for a popular audience of secular Jews, “the idea of holiness according to halakhic [Jewish law] world view does not signify a transcendent realm completely separate and removed from reality…of the supreme good…the halakhic conception of holiness…[is] the holiness of the concrete.”  In the words of Barret, “right conduct is the ultimate concern of the Hebrew,”  and indeed for the observant Jew, according to R. Soloveitchik. Therefore, the Jewish tradition is differentiated from the Greek system of thought, which emphasizes correct knowledge, thinking, and consciousness as the passports to transcendence of the physical world. Some traditions of ancient Gnosticism, like the neo-Platonist desert cults, also subscribed to an idea similar to the Platonist ideal of “true knowledge of the Good” being a gateway to transcending one’s ordinary, physical existence.

Important Jewish existentialists 

Martin Buber
Franz Rosenzweig
Abraham Joshua Heschel
Joseph Soloveitchik

Emmanuel Levinas

see also: Theodicy and post-Holocaust theology in Jewish Existentialism

back to: Existentialism: Summaries, Concepts and Key Thinkers

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