Gaze Theory Explained Simply

At its most fundamental level, gaze theory interrogates the ways in which viewers engage with visual narratives, and how these narratives, in turn, position the viewer. But delve a bit deeper, and it becomes clear that the gaze is not just a matter of seeing and being seen—it's a powerful dynamic that reveals intricate webs of power, gender, and identity.

The gaze, as explored in media and cultural studies, is not merely an act of seeing. It is an intricate dance of power, perception, and representation. Originating from film theory but subsequently adopted and adapted across various disciplines, the gaze encompasses a multitude of perspectives: from the male gaze that objectifies female subjects in cinema, to the colonial gaze that portrays colonized people in a specific light. It's about who holds the power to look and how those being looked at are represented and understood.

Gaze Theorists

Historically rooted in psychoanalysis, the idea of the gaze emerged as a cornerstone in film theory, though its ramifications extend across various disciplines. Its evolution is closely linked to several prominent figures:

• Jacques Lacan: A French psychoanalyst, Lacan is often credited with laying the groundwork for gaze theory. He introduced the concept of the "mirror stage," where an infant recognizes itself in a mirror, marking the commencement of the individual's relationship with their own image. For Lacan, the gaze wasn't just about looking; it was about the anxiety produced in being looked at, highlighting the asymmetrical power dynamics inherent in viewing.

• Laura Mulvey: Building on Lacanian thought, British feminist film theorist Laura Mulvey coined the term "male gaze" in the context of cinema. In her seminal "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema" she argued that mainstream films are constructed with male viewers in mind, leading to the objectification of women. Her insights brought gender dynamics to the forefront of gaze theory, showcasing how the act of looking can be entrenched in patriarchal structures. 

• Edward Said: While not directly associated with gaze theory in the same way as Lacan or Mulvey, Said's work on "Orientalism" introduced the idea of a "colonial gaze". He described how the West views the East through a lens colored by preconceptions and stereotypes, which in turn, reinforces Western dominance and Eastern subjugation.

• Bell Hooks: Renowned for her contributions to gender and race discussions, hooks expanded the discourse around the gaze to consider intersections of race, class, and gender. She critiqued the "oppositional gaze" of Black viewers in Western cinema, discussing how Black audiences recognize and resist the racist structures in which they're portrayed.

• John Berger: Berger, a British art critic and novelist, brought a fresh perspective on gaze theory in his groundbreaking work "Ways of Seeing". This 1972 series, later adapted into a book, demystified the act of seeing, arguing that what we see is invariably influenced by a host of variables including tradition, culture, and the viewer's own individual bias. One of Berger's most salient points centered on the portrayal of women in art and advertising. He posited that women were historically depicted as objects of the male gaze, conditioned to see and be seen as objects to be appreciated, judged, or desired. By doing so, Berger underscored the entrenched gender dynamics in visual representation, asserting that women are often presented not as they are, but as they are expected to be in the eyes of male beholders. His elucidations on gaze theory emphasized the societal constructs that shape our perceptions, bridging the gap between historical art representations and contemporary visual culture.

John Berger – "Ways of Seeing" – Summary (3): nakedness and nudity

John Berger - "Ways of Seeing" - summary and review

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John Berger, following in Kenneth Clark’s footsteps, introduces a distinction between "nakedness" and "nudity" in the European artistic tradition, as he discusses in his seminal work "Ways of Seeing". He argues that being "naked" simply implies a state of undress, whereas "nudity" is a deliberate representation in the realm of art. Berger links this form of representation to the concept of "lived sexuality". In essence, to be naked is to be one's true self, while to be nude, in the artistic sense, is to be undressed for the purpose of being observed. A naked body transforms into an object of the gaze when it is represented as a nude. Nakedness implies being without any disguise, but nudity implies becoming a spectacle in one's own skin.

Art pieces, including paintings and photographs, that depict nudity often stimulate the viewer's sexual interest, predominantly if the viewer is male. The representation is rarely about the subject's own sexuality; women are portrayed primarily to be observed by men. When a male figure is depicted in a nude painting, the woman seldom addresses him, as her focus is on her "true lover" - the viewer. The viewer assumes the central role in the painting without even being present within the frame.

In "Ways of Seeing", Berger further explores the concept of nakedness outside the artistic sphere. He suggests that nakedness exposes a person's genuine gender and adds a touch of banality, simplifying reality once the garments are removed. Therefore, Berger perceives nakedness as a process in reality, rather than a static state.

In the concluding section of "Ways of Seeing", Berger identifies a contradiction within the humanist tradition of European painting. On one side, there's the individualism of the painter, the owner, and the viewer. On the flip side, there's the object - the woman - who is treated as an abstract entity. Berger opines that these unequal relations between men and women are deeply embedded within our culture and women's consciousness, leading women to objectify themselves. 

 see also "Ways of Seeing" - the television series

John Berger - "Ways of Seeing" - summary and review

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John Berger – "Ways of Seeing" – Summary (2): ways of seeing in European art

John Berger - "Ways of Seeing" - summary and review

part 1 - 2 - 3

John Berger critically unearths the depiction of women in European art in his work "Ways of Seeing." He begins his exploration with the biblical character Eve from the Garden of Eden narrative. Berger contends that the realization of nakedness in the tale of Adam and Eve emanated from their altered perception of each other post consumption of the forbidden fruit. This led to the marginalization of women in relation to men.

Renaissance art accentuates the moment of initial shame when Adam and Eve shield themselves with fig leaves. Berger, however, highlights the overlooked fact that their shame is witnessed by an unseen observer, not each other. In the subsequent secular art, the element of Eve's embarrassment is sustained, with the woman being conscious of the observer's gaze. Berger succinctly puts forth, she is not naked for herself but is naked as perceived by the observer.

Berger further underscores the duplicity of using the mirror as a symbol of women's vanity. We first paint a woman in her nudity for our visual delight, and then we reproach her for indulging in her own beauty by assigning a mirror to her hand.

Moreover, in the depiction of Greek mythology, Paris, a young man, is tasked to judge the beauty of goddesses, reducing their appearance to a competition (the precursor to beauty pageants). Emerging victorious in the contest equates to succumbing to the viewer's gaze. Berger points out that such an attitude towards female nudity is not prevalent in other cultures.

In essence, Berger's "ways of seeing" are essentially "ways of subjecting." The distinct ways of seeing/subjecting, demarcating a man's perspective from a woman's, have deep roots in Western culture. They contribute, at least partly, to the persistent gender disparities that exist even in the era advocating feminism. This problem transcends the sphere of mere formal equal rights.

John Berger - "Ways of Seeing" - summary and review

part 1 - 2 - 3

Ways of Seeing by John Berger - Summary and Review

John Berger's seminal article "Ways of Seeing" (1972) offers a revolutionary analysis of how men and women are represented culturally, and how this impacts their behaviour, self-perception, and understanding of each other. Berger submits that visual culture depicts men and women in different lights, thus prompting disparate ways of perceiving.

In the introduction to "Ways of Seeing," Berger posits that women continue to have a unique cultural presence compared to men. He suggests that a man's presence is bound up with his power, abilities, and potential actions. Conversely, a woman's presence is intrinsically linked to her own essence, rather than the external world. She is perceived not as a being with potential, but an object to be acted upon. Berger ascribes this identity to the entrenched belief that women are existentially destined to serve men. As a result, women become perpetually self-aware and constantly conscious of their own presence in every action they undertake. This self-consciousness fragments their identity, splitting it between the observer and the observed. According to Berger, a woman's self-worth is gauged by how she perceives herself, how others perceive her, and critically, how men perceive her.

Berger further contends that men appraise women before interacting with them, and this appraisal determines their relationship. Consequently, a woman's actions and appearance are seen as indicators of how she wishes to be treated and seen. In contrast, men's actions are perceived as just that – actions, devoid of the same level of scrutiny. Berger distills this concept into the phrase, "men act – women appear." Women thus become acutely aware of themselves being observed, metamorphosing into subjects of the male gaze. This, in essence, is the crux of Berger's "Ways of Seeing" – underscoring the different lenses through which men and women are perceived.