Victor Turner (1920–1983) was one of the most influential anthropologists of the 20th century, pioneering the study of symbolic anthropology through his work on rituals, symbols, and social transformation. His approach emphasized the fluid, performative, and dynamic nature of cultural symbols, particularly in rites of passage and social drama. Unlike his structuralist contemporaries, who sought to identify stable systems of meaning, Turner was more interested in process—how symbols evolve, are contested, and generate social change.
Symbols as Dynamic and Multivocal
For Turner, symbols are not static representations of meaning but multi-vocal—they carry multiple interpretations depending on the context and the individuals involved. He argued that symbols function at three levels:
- Exegetical Level – The meaning given by participants (what people say about the symbol).
- Operational Level – How the symbol is used in rituals and practices.
- Positional Level – The symbol’s relation to other symbols within a broader cultural system.
This approach allowed Turner to show that symbols are negotiated and reinterpreted over time, rather than fixed in a single meaning.
The Ritual Process and Liminality
One of Turner’s most significant contributions was his study of rituals, particularly those involving rites of passage—ceremonies that mark the transition from one social status to another (e.g., initiation rites, weddings, funerals).
Building on Arnold van Gennep’s three-phase structure of rites of passage (Separation – Liminality – Reincorporation), Turner focused on the middle phase:
- Liminality is a state of in-betweenness, where individuals exist outside of their usual social roles. During this phase, hierarchies dissolve, norms are suspended, and a new symbolic order emerges.
- Liminality often involves ritual symbols—such as masks, special clothing, or gestures—that help shape the individual’s transformation.
- Those undergoing liminal experiences often form a sense of communitas, an intense feeling of equality and togetherness that temporarily breaks down rigid social structures.
This idea of liminality has been widely applied in fields beyond anthropology, from political movements to performance studies and even modern digital spaces.
Social Drama: How Societies Deal with Conflict
Turner extended his work on ritual into a broader theory of social drama, which he saw as a symbolic process through which societies manage conflict and change. He identified four stages in social dramas:
- Breach – A rupture in social norms (e.g., political scandals, betrayals).
- Crisis – The conflict escalates, and society becomes divided.
- Redressive Action – Attempts at resolution (e.g., legal trials, reconciliation rituals).
- Reintegration or Schism – The conflict is resolved, or society remains divided.
This model helped Turner argue that rituals are not just religious or traditional practices but mechanisms through which societies work through tensions and contradictions.
Turner’s work remains relevant in the study of protests, political transitions, social movements, and cultural performances. Concepts like liminality and communitas help explain everything from activist movements to internet culture, where individuals often undergo radical transformations in their identities.
In an era of global crises, cultural upheaval, and digital revolutions, Turner’s insights remind us that symbols are not just passive reflections of culture—they are active forces that shape, challenge, and transform societies.
