The totem, that pillar with animal figures that stands in the center of the tribe's encampment, is one of the central functions in the establishment of groups and societies, to this day. Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), one of the founding figures of modern sociology, examined religion not as a metaphysical or personal matter but as a social phenomenon at the heart of collective existence. In his seminal work The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, he explores the origins of religion and its function as a social mechanism, placing the concept of totem and totemism at the center of his explanation of primitive religions—and, by extension, social structures in general.
What Is a Totem?
A totem is a symbol—an animal, plant, or natural object—serving as a sacred representation of a social group, tribe, or community. To the members of the tribe, the totem is not just a mere object or creature but a sacred force with deep significance. While it is not a deity, it holds a dimension of sanctity because it symbolizes the group itself and its internal bonds.
Durkheim observed that in many primitive cultures, particularly among Australian Aboriginal tribes, the totem is the focal point of worship. Members of the tribe treat it with reverence, conduct rituals around it, and attribute to it supreme meaning. However, rather than interpreting this as a purely mystical belief, he argues that the totem is a tangible symbol of society itself—society worships itself through the symbol of the totem.
Totemism: The Collective Religion
According to Durkheim, totemism is the simplest and most fundamental form of religion, serving as the foundation for all later religious traditions. In totemism, there are no gods in the monotheistic sense but rather a system of symbols and rituals that create a shared sense of unity and belonging among members of the group.
A crucial point in Durkheim’s analysis is that religion, along with the concepts of sacredness and worship, does not originate from fear of natural forces (as some earlier thinkers suggested) but from the social experience itself. When society gathers for communal rituals, a powerful collective energy arises, which Durkheim calls collective effervescence. This energy generates a sense of sacredness, which then becomes concentrated in the totem as its symbol.
The Totem as a Reflection of Society
Durkheim argues that the totem is not merely a religious object but also a mechanism through which the community defines its identity. When members of the tribe venerate the totem, they are, in essence, expressing their loyalty to the tribe itself, its laws, and its social structures.
To understand this concept, one can consider modern symbols such as national flags, sports team logos, or even historical figures who have become emblems of specific communities. Even today, when people treat a national flag with reverence, hold ceremonies around it, or feel strong emotions toward it, they are, in effect, expressing respect and identification with their national community—just as people did with totems in the past.
The Distinction Between the Sacred and the Profane
One of Durkheim’s central concepts is the distinction between the sacred and the profane. The totem represents the sacred—what transcends daily life, evokes reverence, and holds deeper meaning. The sacred is not necessarily supernatural but is defined as such by society.
In contrast, the profane encompasses everything belonging to the ordinary, material world, devoid of symbolic significance. For Durkheim, this distinction is the foundation of all religions and social structures, as it provides order and meaning within community life.
The Broader Meaning of Totemism
Durkheim does not examine totemism merely as an anthropological phenomenon but as a key to understanding all human societies. If the totem is a representation of society itself, then religion, in all its forms, is essentially a reflection of society and its needs.
Even modern religions that are not based on the worship of animals or natural symbols still utilize totemic mechanisms:
Monotheistic religions – Sacred symbols such as the Christian cross or the Torah scroll in Judaism function as totems representing the religious community.
Nationalism – Flags, anthems, and national ceremonies create a sense of belonging similar to totemic traditions.
Consumer culture – Corporate brands and logos serve as modern totems, as people attribute social and even spiritual value to them.
Criticism of Durkheim’s Totemism Theory
Despite Durkheim’s profound influence, his theory of totemism has faced criticism. Some scholars argue that he generalized too broadly from specific cultures (primarily Australian Aboriginal societies) to religions as a whole.
Others claim that his explanation, which focuses on society, overlooks the experiential and personal dimensions of religion. Religion is not merely a system of collective symbols but also an individual experience of faith and meaning that cannot be reduced solely to social structures.
Totemism and Modern Sociological Thought
Durkheim’s ideas on totemism have profoundly influenced multiple fields, including anthropology, sociology, and the study of religion. His intellectual successors have developed and expanded upon his theories, sometimes even challenging them.
Marcel Mauss, Durkheim’s nephew and student, further explored the social phenomena associated with totemism, particularly the role of ritual exchange and collective obligation, as seen in his study of gift economies (The Gift).
Claude Lévi-Strauss, one of the leading anthropologists of the 20th century, reinterpreted totemism as a symbolic system that helps humans categorize and organize their world rather than as a religious or social structure. In Totemism, he argued that totemism is not a universal stage in religious evolution but rather an expression of human thought based on binary distinctions.
Victor Turner, who studied ritual and symbols in African societies, highlighted the dynamic aspect of totemism and the social transformations it facilitates. He demonstrated how collective rituals, similar to Durkheim’s collective effervescence, serve as moments of social renewal and cohesion.
Modern theorists like Mircea Eliade explored how totemic symbols continue to function in modern ideologies, national identities, and consumer culture.
Conclusion: The Totem as Society’s Mirror
Durkheim’s interpretation of religion offers a radical perspective in which sacredness does not stem from divine revelation or mystical natural forces but from the very structure of society. The totem, in his view, is merely an early example of a mechanism that persists in all human cultures—the symbol that becomes sacred because it represents the society and its unifying power.
Even today, when we observe how symbols, rituals, and myths continue to shape our lives, we can identify the principles of totemism in many aspects of life—from religion and nationalism to popular culture and branding. Durkheim’s work teaches us that society always worships itself, even when it is unaware of doing so.
Emile Durkheim – "The Genesis of the Notion of the Totemic Principle or Mana"
Emile Durkheim – The Totemic Principle in Modern Religion
