Rudolf Otto (1869–1937), a German theologian and philosopher, was one of the key thinkers in the study of religious experience. In his seminal work The Idea of the Holy (Das Heilige), Otto explores the nature of sacredness and the human encounter with the "numinous"—a central concept in his approach to describing religious experiences. The numinous, according to Otto, represents a unique dimension of sacredness that cannot be reduced to rational, moral, or scientific terms. He seeks to differentiate true religious experience from mere rational conceptions of religion and to investigate the deep roots of mystical encounters.
What is the Numinous?
The numinous, as defined by Otto, is an aspect of the sacred that cannot be comprehended by reason alone. It evokes a profound sense of awe when one encounters something "beyond" the material world. This encounter is accompanied by two contrasting emotions: mysterium tremendum (the mystery that induces fear and reverence) and mysterium fascinans (the mystery that elicits attraction and enchantment).
The mysterium tremendum refers to the feeling of standing before something vast and incomprehensible. This is not ordinary fear but an existential dread that stems from human insignificance in the face of the infinite. In contrast, the mysterium fascinans describes the mysterious allure of the sacred, the sense of being drawn toward something inexplicably profound.
Sacredness: Beyond Morality and the Everyday
Otto clarifies that sacredness is not inherently moral but rather an extra-rational experience. It touches upon the realm of the "beyond" and is not necessarily linked to good and evil in a moral sense. The sacred can manifest in contexts where clear ethical rules do not apply, yet it always inspires a sense of cosmic significance and deep meaning.
For instance, in myths and rituals across various cultures, the sacred is often revealed through objects, places, or events perceived as "set apart" from the mundane world. Sacredness imbues reality with existential meaning and invites individuals to connect with something beyond sensory perception.
The Numinous in the Modern Era
Otto emphasizes that the numinous is not confined to specific religions or ancient traditions. Experiences of awe, reverence, and attraction akin to the numinous can also be found in art, music, and aesthetic encounters. Examples include Beethoven’s music, breathtaking landscapes, or personal mystical experiences.
However, Otto argues that modern society, characterized by rationalization and secularization, struggles to connect with the numinous. He sees this disconnection as a contributing factor to existential anxiety in the contemporary world, where individuals feel detached from transcendent sources of meaning.
Criticism and Legacy of Otto’s Thought
Later scholars in religious studies have criticized Otto’s ideas, particularly his tendency to present the numinous as a universal category without sufficient consideration of cultural and historical differences. Some have also argued that his concept of the numinous is too elusive and resists empirical analysis. Despite these critiques, Otto’s work has significantly contributed to understanding the experiential dimension of religion and the psychology of religious encounters. He demonstrated that religion is not merely a system of doctrines and laws but also a deeply personal, emotional, and mystical experience that connects individuals to the sublime.
