In communicating themselves people
often uses utterances as a tool. These utterances sometimes perform something
more than just a sound, or just a mere expression. The theory of speech
acts was first established by the philosopher of language, J.L
Austin (1962). He states that statements can not only be used to describe or
state some facts. On the contrary, some actions can be done through words. He
then developed a theory of performative sentence or performative utterances or
performatives, which are utterances that do not only passively describe a fact
but also perform an act and change the reality. In performative utterances or
speech acts Austin believes that there is no true or false, but rather liked or
not, void or not void. Some examples of performative utterances:
[1.1].When
a bride on the altar said: 'I do'.
[1.2].
When a friend said: 'I bet twenty bucks he will lose'
[1.3]
When someone calls 'shotgun' before a car ride
None of
these utterances are true or false, neither have they described what the
speaker is doing, yet it performs and acts of accepting ([1.1]) and betting
([1.2]). When the bride says 'I do' on the altar to the priest, the bride is
not describing herself or a fact but she indulge herself into the marriage.
Moreover, when a friend says [1.2], the performance of this utterance is as a
proposal which suppose that when someone put a coin into a slot machine and
when the taker accepts the bet by simply saying 'sure' or 'I take it’ then it's
like the person is pulling the lever to see the outcome of the bet.
Austin categorizes two types of
performatives, explicit performatives and implicit performatives (which also
recognized as primary performatives). The distinction between these two
categories is the use of a particular word. Explicit performance usually uses
the word ‘hereby’ so that it sounded true. The word ’hereby’ act as the
producer of action in the utterance. Examples:
[I.3]. I
hereby tell you to turn off the lamp.
[I.4].
Turn off the lamp!
These examples distinguish the difference between implicit and explicit performatives. The sentence uttered in [I.3] is obviously an example of explicit performatives as it contains the word ‘hereby’. Of course, this kind of utterance is rarely used nowadays which makes the implicit performatives as the most widely used as in [I.4].
Searle and speech acts
Later, another linguistic
philosopher, John R. Searle, developed the theory of speech acts. In Searle’s
definition, Speech acts are the basic or smallest form of linguistic
communication. He also hypothesize that speaking a language is engaging in a
rule-governed form of behavior (Searle, p16). In accordance to Searle
(1969), the units of linguistic communication is not the symbol, word or
sentences but rather it is the production of the symbol, words or sentences. He
pointed out that language is part of theory of action as language is a form of
intentional, rule-governed behavior. To support his hypothesis he emphasize the
fact that when someone is making noise with a paper as an example of
communication, a message to other, then his action of making noise with the
paper was made with certain intention and to be distinguished from natural
phenomenon such as rain or waterfall.
Utterance and speech acts
The definition of speech acts is
often related to utterance. According to Yule (1996), speech acts is defined as
actions that are performed via utterances. In English, speech acts are usually
named as promise, request, apology, compliment, invitation, et cetera. These
terms describe the use of speech acts in daily human activity. There are three Types of Speech Acts developed by Austin (1962). These are locutionary,
illocutionary, perlocutionary acts, which is brought into detail in the next
section.
See also:
Locutionary, Illocutionary, Perlocutionary SpeechActsSpeech Acts Classifications
Felicity Condition
Indirect Speech Acts
Examples of
illocutionary acts
Examples of
perlocutionary acts
Performative and Constative speech acts
Summary of How to
Do Things With Words by J.L.Austin
