The term "tragedy of the commons" was coined by ecologist Garrett Hardin in 1968. It describes a dilemma that occurs with shared resources. When individuals, motivated by personal interest, exploit a jointly-owned asset (like space, water, air, etc.), it can harm the common good, leading to the resource's depletion or destruction. While these actions may seem rational from the individual's perspective, they counter the shared interest of all users, resulting in overuse and depletion of the resource for everyone.
This concept illuminates the conflict between individual interests and the collective good. Each user can benefit from exploiting the shared resource, while the costs of depletion and pollution are shared among all users. This encourages overuse and mismanagement of the resource, leading to severe depletion. It highlights the need for effective governance and management strategies to balance individual needs with the long-term sustainability of public resources.
Environmental issues exemplify the tragedy of the commons. Natural resources like fisheries, forests, water sources, and air quality are classic examples. Overfishing in the oceans is a clear illustration: individual fishermen benefit from catching as many fish as possible, but without regulation, fish populations collapse, damaging the ecosystem and the livelihoods of fishing-dependent communities. Deforestation in the Amazon, driven by private economic gain, leads to biodiversity loss, climate disturbances, and risks to indigenous populations' habitats.
The tragedy of the commons also affects economic and social systems. Public goods such as fresh air, clean water, and public lands can suffer from overuse and underinvestment. Traffic congestion in cities is a social example: roads, a public resource, become clogged due to excessive use by private vehicles, leading to inefficiency and pollution.
Climate change presents a complex, global example of the tragedy of the commons. Emission of greenhouse gases by countries and companies pursuing economic growth results in drastic climate changes and environmental damage that affects everyone.
However, solutions and management strategies can help resolve and mitigate the consequences of the tragedy of the commons. Nobel laureate Eleanor Ostrom's work demonstrated that communities could manage shared resources sustainably without requiring privatization or government intervention. Her research identified success factors such as setting clear boundaries, adapting rules to local conditions, collective decision-making, monitoring and enforcement mechanisms, and conflict resolution processes.